Carbonaceous particulate matter promotes the horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes.

There is growing concern about the transfer of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in airborne particulate matter. In this study, we investigated the effects of various types of carbonaceous particulate matter (CPM) on the transfer of ARGs in vitro. The results showed that CPM promoted the transfer of ARGs, which was related to the concentration and particle size. Compared with the control group, the transfer frequency was 95.5, 74.7, 65.4, 14.7, and 3.8 times higher in G (graphene), CB (carbon black), NGP (nanographite powder), GP1.6 (graphite powder 1.6 micron), and GP45 (graphite powder 45 micron) groups, respectively. Moreover, the transfer frequency gradually increased with the increase in CPM concentration, while there was a negative relationship between the CPM particle size and conjugative transfer frequency. In addition, the results showed that CPM could promote the transfer of ARGs by increasing ROS, as well as activating the SOS response and expression of conjugative transfer-related genes (trbBp, trfAp, korA, kroB, and trbA). These findings are indicative of the potential risk of CPM for the transfer of ARGs in the environment, enriching our understanding of environmental pollution and further raising awareness of environmental protection.

Comparative analysis of chlorine-resistant bacteria after chlorination and chloramination in drinking water treatment plants.

Chlorine-resistant bacteria (CRB) in drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) jeopardize water quality and pose a potential risk to human health. However, the specific response of CRB to chlorination and chloramination remains uncharacterized. Therefore, we analyzed 16 S rRNA sequencing data from water samples before and after chlorination and chloramination taken between January and December 2020. Proteobacteria and Firmicutes dominated all finished water samples. After chloramination, Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, Methylobacterium, Ralstonia, and Sphingomonas were the dominant CRB, whereas Ralstonia, Bacillus, Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, and Enterococcus were prevalent after chlorination. Over 75% of the CRB e.g. Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, and Enterococcus were shared between the chlorination and chloramination, involving potentially pathogens, such as Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Notably, certain genera such as Faecalibacterium, Geobacter, and Megasphaera were enriched as strong CRB after chloramination, whereas Vogesella, Flavobacterium, Thalassolituus, Pseudoalteromonas, and others were enriched after chlorination according to LEfSe analysis. The shared CRB correlated with temperature, pH, and turbidity, displaying a seasonal pattern with varying sensitivity to chlorination and chloramination in cold and warm seasons. These findings enhance our knowledge of the drinking water microbiome and microbial health risks, thus enabling better infectious disease control through enhanced disinfection strategies in DWTPs.

Determination of total phenol and six polyphenolic components in the polyphenol extract of Cinnamomi cortex by quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

A quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (qNMR) method was established for determining the total phenol and six polyphenolic components in the polyphenol extract of Cinnamomi cortex. The qNMR approach utilized DMSO-d6 as the deuterated solvent and potassium hydrogen phthalate as the internal standard for quantifying the total phenolic content, expressed as epicatechin equivalence in the sample. Two complementary qNMR methods with DMSO-d6 or D2O as solvent were established to simultaneously determine 6 polyphenol components in the cinnamon polyphenol extract, including epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), epicatechingallate (ECG), epicatechin (EC), epigallocatechin (EGC), gallocatechin gallate (GCG) and gallic acid (GA). Method validation demonstrated excellent precision with intraday relative standard deviation (RSD) below 1.08% and interday RSD below 1.48%. The linear correlation coefficient (r) exceeded 0.999, and the limits of detection (LOD) were from 0.01 to 0.14 mg mL-1, while the limits of quantification (LOQ) were from 0.07 to 0.69 mg mL-1. Recovery rates for this method fell within the range of 98.2% to 101.7%. Furthermore, the method has been successfully applied for determining the polyphenolic content in authentic cinnamon polyphenol extracts obtained from different sources.

Landscape of antibiotic resistance genes and bacterial communities in groundwater on the Tibetan Plateau, and distinguishing their difference with low-altitude counterparts.

Groundwater is a vital source of drinking water for Tibetans. Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and bacterial communities in groundwater on the Tibetan Plateau remain unclear. Furthermore, the characterization of their differences between high-altitude and low-altitude groundwater is still unrevealed. Herein, 32 groundwater samples were collected on the plateau, and intra- and extracellular ARGs (iARGs and eARGs), and bacterial communities were characterised through qPCR assays to 19 ARGs and 16S rRNA sequencing. It showed top four abundant intra- and extracellular last-resort ARGs (LARGs) were blaOXA-48, mcr-1, vanA, and vanB, whereas dominant common ARGs (CARGs) were tetA and ermB, respectively. CARGs had higher abundances than LARGs, and iARGs were more frequently detected than eARGs. Proteobacteria, an invasive resident phylum, and Firmicutes dominated eDNA release. Network analysis revealed all observed LARGs co-occurred with pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria. Community diversity was significantly associated with longitude and elevation, while nitrate correlated with ARGs. Comparative analysis demonstrated eARG frequencies and abundances were higher at high altitudes than at low altitudes. Additionally, Acinetobacter and Pseudomonas specifically dominated at high altitudes. This study reveals the widespread prevalence of ARGs, particularly LARGs, in groundwater on the less-disturbed Tibetan Plateau and underlines the potential risks associated with the LARG-carrying bacteria. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATION: Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), which are defined as emerging environmental contaminants, are becoming a global concern due to their ability to confer antibiotic resistance to pathogens. Our findings highlight the prevalence of ARGs, particularly LARGs, in groundwater on the Tibetan Plateau, and the possibility that naturally-occurring pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria carry multiple LARGs. In addition, we further reveal differences in the distribution of ARGs and bacterial community between high-altitude and low-altitude groundwater. Collectively, our findings offer an important insight into the potential public risks related to groundwater on the Tibetan Plateau.

Spatial and temporal analysis of the seasonal dynamics of antibiotic resistance gene occurrence in recreational marine water.

People who engage in water sports in recreational marine water may be at high risk of exposure to hazardous antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB). However, information on the contribution of specific sources to ARB contamination in recreational marine water is still lacking. Here, we carried out monthly analyses of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), pathogenic bacteria and 16S rRNA sequencing data at the First Bathing Beach in Qingdao. The sampling sites were divided into four areas: swimming area, intermediate area, polluted area, and sewage outlet. Correlations between ARGs and bacterial communities among sampling sites were explored by spatial and temporal analysis. We found that all of 21 important ARG types were detected in the swimming area, with aadA (1.3 × 106 ± 2.7 × 106 genomic copies/L) and sul2 (4.3 × 105 ± 5.9 × 105 genomic copies/L) at the highest concentration. Most ARGs were detected at highest frequency and concentration in the sewage outlet and decreased from there to the swimming area. ARG correlation between these two areas was positive only in the cold season, suggesting that sewage was the main source of ARG pollution in the swimming area during that period. The ARGs ermA(1) and vanA were detected at highest frequency and concentration in the swimming area and were significantly correlated with the intestinal pathogen Enterococcus, which was more abundant here than in the surrounding areas during the warm season. Co-occurrence analysis of bacterial genera and ARGs showed that six genera were commonly correlated with ARGs in all sampling areas in the cold season, while none were found in the warm season. Our findings indicate that ARG pollution in the swimming area was also driven by sources other than sewage, especially in the warm season, which is the peak tourist season in Qingdao. These results provide a valuable basis for the implementation of effective strategies to control ARG risks in recreational waters.

Antidepressant exposure as a source of disinfectant resistance in waterborne bacteria.

The emergence of disinfectant-resistant pathogens in water is a major threat to public health. However, whether human-consumed pharmaceuticals can induce bacterial resistance to disinfectants remains unclear. Herein, Escherichia coli was exposed to 12 antidepressants, and susceptibility of antidepressant-induced chloramphenicol (CHL)-resistant mutants to disinfectants was tested. Whole genome sequencing, global transcriptomic sequencing, and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction were used to elucidate the underlying mechanisms. We observed that duloxetine, fluoxetine, amitriptyline, and sertraline significantly increased the mutation frequency of E. coli against CHL by 15- to 2948-fold. The resultant mutants increased the average MIC50 of sodium hypochlorite, benzalkonium bromide, and triclosan roughly 2- to 8-fold. Consistently, marRAB and acrAB-tolC genes, together with ABC transporter genes (e.g., yddA, yadG, yojI, and mdlA), were triggered to increase the efflux of disinfectants out of the cell, while ompF was inhibited, reducing disinfectant penetration into the cell. Additionally, the occurrence of DNA mutations in marR and acrR in the mutants was observed, potentially resulting in increased synthesis of the AcrAB-TolC pump. This study indicates that pharmaceutical exposure may create disinfectant-resistant bacteria, which may then be released into water systems, providing novel insights into the potential source of water-borne disinfectant-resistant pathogens.

Representation Learning on Heterostructures via Heterogeneous Anonymous Walks.

Capturing structural similarity has been a hot topic in the field of network embedding (NE) recently due to its great help in understanding node functions and behaviors. However, existing works have paid very much attention to learning structures on homogeneous networks, while the related study on heterogeneous networks is still void. In this article, we try to take the first step for representation learning on heterostructures, which is very challenging due to their highly diverse combinations of node types and underlying structures. To effectively distinguish diverse heterostructures, we first propose a theoretically guaranteed technique called heterogeneous anonymous walk (HAW) and give two more applicable variants. Then, we devise the HAW embedding (HAWE) and its variants in a data-driven manner to circumvent using an extremely large number of possible walks and train embeddings by predicting occurring walks in the neighborhood of each node. Finally, we design and apply extensive and illustrative experiments on synthetic and real-world networks to build a benchmark on heterostructure learning and evaluate the effectiveness of our methods. The results demonstrate our methods achieve outstanding performance compared with both homogeneous and heterogeneous classic methods and can be applied on large-scale networks.

Simulated Gastric Acid Promotes the Horizontal Transfer of Multidrug Resistance Genes across Bacteria in the Gastrointestinal Tract at Elevated pH Levels.

The assessment of factors that can promote the transmission of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) across bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract is in great demand to understand the occurrence of infections related to antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in humans. However, whether acid-resistant enteric bacteria can promote ARG transmission in gastric fluid under high-pH conditions remains unknown. This study assessed the effects of simulated gastric fluid (SGF) at different pH levels on the RP4 plasmid-mediated conjugative transfer of ARGs. Moreover, transcriptomic analysis, measurement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, assessment of cell membrane permeability, and real-time quantitative assessment of the expression of key genes were performed to identify the underlying mechanisms. The frequency of conjugative transfer was the highest in SGF at pH 4.5. Antidepressant consumption and certain dietary factors further negatively impacted this situation, with 5.66-fold and 4.26-fold increases in the conjugative transfer frequency being noted upon the addition of sertraline and 10% glucose, respectively, compared with that in the control group without any additives. The induction of ROS generation, the activation of cellular antioxidant systems, increases in cell membrane permeability, and the promotion of adhesive pilus formation were factors potentially contributing to the increased transfer frequency. These findings indicate that conjugative transfer could be enhanced under certain circumstances in SGF at elevated pH levels, thereby facilitating ARG transmission in the gastrointestinal tract. IMPORTANCE The low pH of gastric acid kills unwanted microorganisms, in turn affecting their inhabitation in the intestine. Hence, studies on the factors that influence antibiotic resistance gene (ARG) propagation in the gastrointestinal tract and on the underlying mechanisms are limited. In this study, we constructed a conjugative transfer model in the presence of simulated gastric fluid (SGF) and found that SGF could promote the dissemination of ARGs under high-pH conditions. Furthermore, antidepressant consumption and certain dietary factors could negatively impact this situation. Transcriptomic analysis and a reactive oxygen species assay revealed the overproduction of reactive oxygen species as a potential mechanism by which SGF could promote conjugative transfer. This finding can help provide a comprehensive understanding of the bloom of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the body and create awareness regarding the risk of ARG transmission due to certain diseases or an improper diet and the subsequent decrease in gastric acid levels.

Characterization of a novel tetravalent botulism antitoxin based on receptor-binding domain of BoNTs.

Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNTs; serotypes A, B, E, and F) cause botulism disease in humans, which could be effectively treated using antitoxins. Herein, we established a novel receptor-binding domain (RBD)-based antitoxin using recombinant C terminal heavy chain (Hc) domains of BoNTs as immunogens. Immunization of horses with these recombinant Hc domains allowed the purification and digestion of IgGs from hyper-immune sera to produce high-quality and high-efficiency monovalent botulism antitoxin F(ab')2 against each BoNT (M-BATs). However, these M-BATs could not bind or neutralize other serotypes of BoNTs, and that there were no cross-protective effects among these M-BATs. This suggested the need to prepare tetravalent antitoxins to neutralize the four BoNTs simultaneously. Thus, these M-BATs were formulated into a novel tetravalent botulism antitoxin (T-BAT), in which a 10-ml volume contained 10000 IU of BoNT/A and 5000 IU of BoNT/B, BoNT/E, and BoNT/F antitoxins. The novel antitoxin preparation could prevent and treat the four mixed botulinum neurotoxins simultaneously in vivo, representing strong efficacy in an animal poisoning model. Moreover, these antibodies in T-BAT could bind the RBD, whereas conventional antitoxins based on inactivated toxins mainly bind the light chain or heavy chain translocation domain (HN) and weakly bind the important RBD in current experimental conditions. The high levels of RBD-specific novel antitoxins can efficiently bind the RBD and neutralize natural or recombinant toxins containing this RBD. The findings of the present study experimentally support the use of RBD-specific antitoxins to treat BoNT serotype A, B, E, and F-mediated botulism. This study demonstrated the concept of developing potent novel multivalent antitoxins against all BoNTs or other toxins, using the RBD of these toxins as an alternative antigen to inactivated toxins. KEY POINTS: • Antitoxins based on the receptor-binding domains of botulinum neurotoxins were made. • Novel antitoxin binds RBD; traditional antitoxin mainly binds light chain or HN domain. • A tetravalent antitoxin could prevent and treat the four mixed neurotoxins in vivo.

Extended chloramination significantly enriched intracellular antibiotic resistance genes in drinking water treatment plants.

Chloramination and chlorination are both strong barriers that prevent the transmission of potential pathogens to humans through drinking water. However, the comparative effects of chloramination and chlorination on the occurrence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) remain unknown. Herein, the antibiotic resistome in water before and after chloramination or chlorination was analyzed through metagenomic sequencing and then verified through quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). After the treatment of 90 min, chloramination led to higher enrichment of the total relative abundance of intracellular ARGs (iARGs) in water than chlorination, whereas chlorination facilitated the release of more extracellular ARGs (eARGs) than chloramination. According to redundancy and Pearson's analyses, the total concentration of the observed iARGs in the finished water exhibited a strong positive correlation with ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N) concentration, presenting a linear upward trend with an increase in the NH4+-N concentration. This indicated that NH4+-N is a crucial driving factor for iARG accumulation during chloramination. iARG enrichment ceases if the duration of chloramination is shortened to 40 min, suggesting that shortening the duration would be a better strategy for controlling iARG enrichment in drinking water. These findings emphasized the potential risk of antibiotic resistance after extended chloramination, shedding light on the control of transmission of antibiotic-resistant bacteria through water by optimizing disinfection procedures in DWTPs.

Predicting the concentrations of enteric viruses in urban rivers running through the city center via an artificial neural network.

Viral waterborne diseases are widespread in cities due largely to the occurrence of enteric viruses in urban rivers, which pose a significant concern to human health. Yet, the application of rapid detection technology for enteric viruses in environmental water remains undeveloped globally. Here, multiple linear regression (MLR) modeling and artificial neural network (ANN) modeling, which used frequently measured physicochemical parameters in river water, were constructed to predict the concentration of enteric viruses including human enteroviruses (EnVs), rotaviruses (HRVs), astroviruses (AstVs), noroviruses GⅡ (HuNoVs GⅡ), and adenoviruses (HAdVs) in rivers. After training, testing, and validating, ANN models showed better performance than any MLR model for predicting the viral concentration in Jinhe River. All determined R-values for ANN models exceeded 0.89, suggesting a strong correlation between the predicted and measured outputs for target enteric viruses. Furthermore, ANN models provided a better congruence between the observed and predicted concentrations of each virus than MLR models did. Together, these findings strongly suggest that ANN modeling can provide more accurate and timely predictions of viral concentrations based on frequent (or routine) measurements of physicochemical parameters in river water, which would improve assessments of waterborne disease prevalence in cities.

Comprehensive insights into profiles and bacterial sources of intracellular and extracellular antibiotic resistance genes in groundwater.

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), especially last-resort ARGs (LARGs), are receiving extensive attention as emerging environmental contaminants in groundwater. However, their prevalent intracellular and extracellular patterns and bacterial sources in groundwater remain unclear. Herein, groundwater samples were collected in Tianjin, and characterized based on the profiles of intracellular ARGs (iARGs) and extracellular ARGs (eARGs), as well as the resident bacterial communities and extracellular DNA (eDNA)-releasing bacterial communities. The quantitative real-time PCR assays showed that eARGs presented fewer subtypes than iARGs and generally displayed lower detection frequencies than the corresponding iARGs. Similarly, LARGs exhibited lower detection frequencies than common ARGs, but the total abundance showed no significant differences between them. Genes vanA and blaVIM were the observed dominant LARGs, and aadA was the observed common ARG independent of location inside or outside the bacteria. Furthermore, the top 10 phyla showed much difference between the main eDNA-releasing bacteria and the dominant resident bacteria. Proteobacteria was the predominant resident bacterial phyla while dominating the source of eDNA in groundwater. Despite representing a minor portion of the abundance in the resident bacteria, Actinobacteriota, Acidobacteriota, and Chloroflex surprisingly accounted for a large majority of eDNA release. Co-occurrence patterns among persistent ARGs, the resident bacteria, and eDNA-releasing bacteria revealed that the dominant common iARG aadA and intracellular LARGs blaVIM and vanA had significant positive correlations with Methylobacterium_Methylorubrum and Shewanella. Meanwhile, the dominant extracellular LARG blaVIM may be released by bacteria belonging to at least five genera, including Ellin6067, Bifidobacterium, Blautia, Veillonella, and Dechloromonas. Collectively, the findings of this study extend our understanding regarding the distribution of ARGs and their bacterial sources in groundwater, and indicate the serious pollution of LARGs in groundwater, which poses potential risks to public health.

Development and evaluation of a tetravalent botulinum vaccine.

Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are the most toxic known proteins. Naturally occurring botulism in humans is caused by botulinum serotypes A, B, E, and F. Vaccination is an effective strategy to prevent botulism. In this study, a tetravalent botulinum vaccine (TBV) that can prevent serotypes A, B, E, and F was developed using the C-terminal receptor-binding domain of BoNT (Hc) as an antigen. To develop a suitable vaccine formulation, in vitro binding experiments of antigens and aluminum adjuvant in different buffers, and in vivo experiments of TBV at different antigen concentrations, were conducted. Our results showed that the optimal vaccine formulation buffer was a pH 6.0 phosphate buffer, and the suitable antigen concentration was 40 or 80 µg/ml of each antigen. A pilot-scale TBV was then prepared and evaluated for immunogenicity and stability. The results showed that TBV could elicit strong protective efficacy against each BoNT in mice, and remain effective after two years of storage at 4ºC, indicating that the preparation was stable and highly effective. Adsorption experiments also showed that the antigens could be well adsorbed by the aluminum adjuvant after 2 years of storage. Our results provide valuable experimental data supporting the development of a tetravalent botulinum vaccine, which is a promising candidate for the prevention of botulinum serotypes A, B, E, and F.

Myocardin/microRNA-30a/Beclin1 signaling controls the phenotypic modulation of vascular smooth muscle cells by regulating autophagy.

Upon vascular injury, vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) change from a contractile phenotype to a synthetic phenotype, thereby leading to atherogenesis and arterial restenosis. Myocardin (MYOCD) is essential for maintaining the contractile phenotype of VSMCs. Deletion of MYOCD in VSMCs triggers autophagy. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the effect of MYOCD on autophagy is not clear. In this study, knockdown of MYOCD in human aortic VSMCs (HA-VSMCs) triggered autophagy and diminished the expression of SMC contractile proteins. Inhibition of autophagy in MYOCD-knockdown cells restored the expression of contractile proteins. MYOCD activated the transcription of miR-30a by binding to the CArG box present in its promoter, as confirmed by luciferase reporter and chromatin immune coprecipitation assays, while miR-30a decreased the expression of autophagy protein-6 (ATG6, also known as beclin1) by targeting its 3'UTR. Restoring the expression of miR-30a in MYOCD-knockdown cells upregulated the levels of contractile proteins. Treatment of VSMCs with platelet-derived growth factor type BB (PDGF-BB) resulted in the transformation of VSMCs to a proliferative phenotype. A low level of miR-30a was observed in PDGF-BB-treated HA-VSMCs, and re-expression of miR-30a led to a decrease in proliferative marker expression. Furthermore, using a wire injury mouse model, we found that miR-30a expression was significantly downregulated in the arterial tissues of mice and that restoration of miR-30a expression at the injured site abolished neointimal formation. Herein, MYOCD could inhibit autophagy by activating the transcription of miR-30a and that miR-30a-mediated autophagy defects could inhibit intimal hyperplasia in a carotid arterial injury model.

Emerging pollutant metformin in water promotes the development of multiple-antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli via chromosome mutagenesis.

Antibiotics are known to be key drivers of antibiotic resistance and antibiotic resistance gene transmission. However, the contribution of the emerging pollutant metformin in facilitating antibiotic resistance remains unclear. In this study, Escherichia coli K12 (E. coli) was exposed to metformin at concentrations ranging from 10-7 to 200 mg/L, and antibiotic susceptibility test of isolated mutants was evaluated. DNA and RNA sequencing and real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) were performed to identify the underlying mechanisms. The results showed metformin concentrations ranging from 10-6 to 200 mg/L caused multiple-antibiotic resistance in E. coli. After 1 day exposure to metformin at 1 ng/L, the mutation frequency in E. coli increased to 1.24 × 10-8, and it further increased to 7.13 × 10-8 when prolonged to 5 days. And the mutants showed multiple-antibiotic resistance. Whole-genome DNA analysis of mutants showed chromosome mutagenesis in marR, tonB, and fhuA. Global transcriptional analysis and qPCR revealed the expressions of emrK, emrY, cusB, cusC, hycA, cecR, marA, acrA, and acrB were upregulated and those of tonB and fhuA were significantly downregulated. Thus, an increase in efflux systems AcrAB-TolC, EmrKY-TolC, and CusCFBA together with a decrease in FhuA-TonB protein complex play vital roles in the multiple-antibiotic resistance induced by metformin.

Combined exposure to non-antibiotic pharmaceutics and antibiotics in the gut synergistically promote the development of multi-drug-resistance in Escherichia coli.

The gut microbiota represents an important reservoir of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB), which poses a significant threat to public health. However, little is known about the emergence of ARB in the gut after the combined exposure to antibiotics and non-antibiotic pharmaceutics. Here, Escherichia coli, a common opportunistic pathogen in the gut microbiota, was exposed to the antidepressant duloxetine (2.5 µg/L-25 mg/L) and/or chloramphenicol (6 µg/L-4 mg/L). The resistant strains were isolated to determine the minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) of 29 antibiotics. Then, genome-wide DNA sequencing, global transcriptomic sequencing, and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction were performed to quantify the synergy between duloxetine and chloramphenicol. Combined exposure synergistically increased the mutation frequency of chloramphenicol resistance by 2.45-9.01 fold compared with the independent exposure. A combination index reaching 187.7 indicated strong duloxetine and chloramphenicol synergy. The resultant mutants presented heritable enhanced resistance to 12 antibiotics and became ARB to eight antibiotics. Furthermore, combined exposure significantly increased the transcriptomic expression of acrA, acrB, and marA in E. coli, and generated a more robust oxidative stress response. Together with the occurrence of DNA mutations in marR in the mutants, stronger triggers to the AcrAB-TolC transport system and the MlaFEDB ABC transporter via reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced mutagenesis, verified by gene knockout, contributed to the synergistic enhancement of antibiotic resistance in the combined exposure group. Regardless of whether their formation was induced by duloxetine, chloramphenicol, or their combination, the E. coli mutants showed 1.1-1.7-fold increases in the expression levels of acrA, acrB, acrZ, mdtE, and mdtF. This pattern indicated that the mutants shared the same resistance mechanisms against chloramphenicol, involving the improved efflux pumps AcrAB-TolC and mdtEF. Our findings demonstrated that antibiotics and non-antibiotic pharmaceutics synergistically accelerate the evolution of ARB and may enhance their spread.

Antibiotic resistance genes in gut of breast-fed neonates born by caesarean section originate from breast milk and hospital ward air.

The human gut is a reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Even in the absence of antibiotics, ARGs are present in large quantities in faeces of adults, children and even newborns. However, where and when ARGs are acquired remains unclear, as does the types of ARGs acquired. Herein, we recruited 82 pairs of women and their caesarean section newborns. Conventional culture methods and quantitative PCR were employed to detect nine species and six ARG types in meconia, faeces from 3-day-old newborns, amniotic fluid, colostrum, and hospital ward air samples. Furthermore, ARG transfer was explored by tracking Staphylococcus epidermidis isolated from faeces of 3-day-old newborns, colostrum and ward air samples using multi-locus sequence typing (MLST). No ARGs or microorganisms were detected in meconia or amniotic fluid. One or more ARGs were detected in 90.2% of faeces from 3-day-old newborns, and the mecA gene exhibited the highest detection rate (45.1%). ARGs were detected in 85.4% of colostra consistent with ARGs in faeces from 3-day-old newborns. Some ARGs were detected in ward air, and might also be a source of ARGs in neonatal faeces. Isolation of S. epidermidis from neonatal faeces was consistent with antibiotic resistance and gene profiles for colostrum samples. Traceability analysis of S. epidermidis showed that ARGs in neonatal faeces mainly originated from colostrum, and partly from ward air. After birth, neonates born by caesarean section obtain a variety of ARGs mainly from colostrum, and partly from ward air.

High-sugar, high-fat, and high-protein diets promote antibiotic resistance gene spreading in the mouse intestinal microbiota.

Diet can not only provide nutrition for intestinal microbiota, it can also remodel them. However, is unclear whether and how diet affects the spread of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the intestinal microbiota. Therefore, we employed selected high-sugar, high-fat, high-protein, and normal diets to explore the effect. The results showed that high-sugar, high-fat, and high-protein diets promoted the amplification and transfer of exogenous ARGs among intestinal microbiota, and up-regulated the expression of trfAp and trbBp while significantly altered the intestinal microbiota and its metabolites. Inflammation-related products were strongly correlated with the spread of ARGs, suggesting the intestinal microenvironment after diet remodeling might be conducive to the spreading of ARGs. This may be attributed to changes in bacterial membrane permeability, the SOS response, and bacterial composition and diversity caused by diet-induced inflammation. In addition, acceptor bacteria (zygotes) screened by flow cytometry were mostly Proteobacteria, Firmicutes and Actinobacteria, and most were derived from dominant intestinal bacteria remodeled by diet, indicating that the transfer of ARGs was closely linked to diet, and had some selectivity. Metagenomic results showed that the gut resistance genome could be affected not only by diet, but by exogenous antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB). Many ARG markers coincided with bacterial markers in diet groups. Therefore, dominant bacteria in different diets are important hosts of ARGs in specific dietary environments, but the many pathogenic bacteria present may cause serious harm to human health.

Spatial behavior and source tracking of extracellular antibiotic resistance genes in a chlorinated drinking water distribution system.

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are receiving increasing concerns due to the antibiotic resistance crisis. Nevertheless, little is known about the spatial behavior and sources of extracellular ARGs (eARGs) in the chlorinated drinking water distribution systems (DWDSs). Here, tap water was continuously collected to reveal the occurrence of both eARGs and intracellular ARGs (iARGs) along a chlorinated DWDS. Afterward, the correlation between eARGs, eDNA-releasing communities, and communities of planktonic bacteria was further analyzed. The eARG concentration decreased significantly, whereas the proportion of vanA and blaNDM-1 increased. Further, the diversity of the eDNA-releasing community increased markedly with increasing distance from the drinking water treatment plant (DWTP). Moreover, the dominant eDNA-releasing bacteria shifted from Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, and Methylobacterium-Methylorubrum in finished water from the DWTP to Bacteroides, Faecalibacterium, Staphylococcus, and Parabacteroides in the DWDS. In terms of eARG source, thirty genera were significantly correlated with seven types of eARGs that resulted from the lysis of dead planktonic bacteria and detached biofilms. Conversely, the iARGs concentration increased, whereas the biodiversity of the planktonic bacteria community decreased in the sampling points along the DWDSs. Our findings provide critical insights into the spatial behavior and sources of eARGs, highlighting the health risks associated with ARGs in DWDSs.